0
edits
The principle of ultrasound: Difference between revisions
Jump to navigation
Jump to search
no edit summary
No edit summary |
No edit summary |
||
| Line 121: | Line 121: | ||
Temporal resolution implies how fast the frame rate is. FR = 77000/(# cycles/sector x depth). Thus frame rate is limited by the frequency of ultrasound and the imaging depth. The larger the depth, the slower the FR is and worse temporal resolution. The higher the frequency is, the higher is the FR and the temporal resolution improves. Sonographer can do several things to improve the temporal resolution: images at shallow depth, decrease the #cycles by using multifocusing, decrease the sector size, lower the line density. However one can realize quickly that some of these manipulations will degrade image quality. And this is in fact correct: improving temporal resolution often degrades image quality. M-mode is still the highest temporal resolution modality within ultrasound imaging to date. | Temporal resolution implies how fast the frame rate is. FR = 77000/(# cycles/sector x depth). Thus frame rate is limited by the frequency of ultrasound and the imaging depth. The larger the depth, the slower the FR is and worse temporal resolution. The higher the frequency is, the higher is the FR and the temporal resolution improves. Sonographer can do several things to improve the temporal resolution: images at shallow depth, decrease the #cycles by using multifocusing, decrease the sector size, lower the line density. However one can realize quickly that some of these manipulations will degrade image quality. And this is in fact correct: improving temporal resolution often degrades image quality. M-mode is still the highest temporal resolution modality within ultrasound imaging to date. | ||
Before we talk about '''Doppler Effect''', let us discuss the ultrasound transducer architecture and function. The current transducers became available after the discovery that some materials can change shape very quickly or vibrate with the application of direct current. As important is the fact that these materials can in turn produce electricity as they change shape from an external energy input (i.e., from the reflected ultrasound beam). This effect of vibration form an application of alternative current is called a piezoelectric effect (PZT). Many materials exist in nature that exhibit piezoelectric effect. Ccommercial transducers employ ceramics like barium titanate or lead zirconate titanate. The transducer usually consists of many PZT crystals that are arranged next to each other and are connected electronically. The frequency of the transducer depends on the thickness of these crystals, in medical imaging it ranges 2-8 MHz. An ultrasound pulse is created by applying alternative current to these crystals for a short time period. Afterwards, the system “listens” and generates voltage from the crystal vibrations that come from the returning ultrasound. An important part of the transducer is the backing material that is placed behind the PZT, it is designed to maximally shorten the time the PZT crystal vibrates after the current input is gone also known as ringing response. By decreasing the ringdown time, one decreases the pulse length and improves the axial resolution. In addition, the backing material decreases the amount of ultrasound energy that is directed backwards and laterally. In front of the PZT, several matching layers are placed to decrease the difference in the impedance between the PZT and the patient’s skin. This increases in efficiency of ultrasound transfer and decrease the amount of energy that is reflected from the patient. | Before we talk about '''Doppler Effect''', let us discuss the ultrasound transducer architecture and function. The current transducers became available after the discovery that some materials can change shape very quickly or vibrate with the application of direct current. As important is the fact that these materials can in turn produce electricity as they change shape from an external energy input (i.e., from the reflected ultrasound beam). This effect of vibration form an application of alternative current is called a piezoelectric effect (PZT). | ||
[[File:PhysicsUltrasound_Fig22.svg|thumb|left|350px| Fig. 22]] | |||
{{clr}} | |||
Many materials exist in nature that exhibit piezoelectric effect. Ccommercial transducers employ ceramics like barium titanate or lead zirconate titanate. The transducer usually consists of many PZT crystals that are arranged next to each other and are connected electronically. The frequency of the transducer depends on the thickness of these crystals, in medical imaging it ranges 2-8 MHz. An ultrasound pulse is created by applying alternative current to these crystals for a short time period. Afterwards, the system “listens” and generates voltage from the crystal vibrations that come from the returning ultrasound. An important part of the transducer is the backing material that is placed behind the PZT, it is designed to maximally shorten the time the PZT crystal vibrates after the current input is gone also known as ringing response. By decreasing the ringdown time, one decreases the pulse length and improves the axial resolution. In addition, the backing material decreases the amount of ultrasound energy that is directed backwards and laterally. In front of the PZT, several matching layers are placed to decrease the difference in the impedance between the PZT and the patient’s skin. This increases in efficiency of ultrasound transfer and decrease the amount of energy that is reflected from the patient. | |||
Let us talk about the shape of the ultrasound beam. Since there are many PZT crystals that are connected electronically, the beam shape can be adjusted to optimize image resolution. The beam is cylindrical in shape as it exits the transducer, eventually it diverges and becomes more conical. The cylindrical (or proximal) part of the beam is referred to as near filed or Freznel zone. The image quality and resolution is best at the focal depth that can be determined by Focal depth = (Transducer Diameter)^2 x frequency /4. When the ultrasound beam diverges, it is called the far field. One would state that the best images are acquired using a large diameter transducer with high frequency. However, as we have learned, high frequency transducers have significant attenuation issues. In addition, larger diameter transducers are impractical to use because the imaging windows are small. The way around these problems is electronic focusing with either an acoustic lens or by arranging the PZT crystals in a concave shape. In clinical imaging, the ultrasound beam is electronically focused as well as it is steered. This became possible after phased array technology was invented. By applying electrical current in a differential manner and adjusting the timing of individual PZT excitation, the beam can travel in an arch producing a two-dimensional image. If one applies electricity in a differential manner from outside inward to the center of the transducer, differential focusing can be produced resulting in a dynamic transmit focusing process. | Let us talk about the shape of the ultrasound beam. Since there are many PZT crystals that are connected electronically, the beam shape can be adjusted to optimize image resolution. The beam is cylindrical in shape as it exits the transducer, eventually it diverges and becomes more conical. The cylindrical (or proximal) part of the beam is referred to as near filed or Freznel zone. The image quality and resolution is best at the focal depth that can be determined by Focal depth = (Transducer Diameter)^2 x frequency /4. When the ultrasound beam diverges, it is called the far field. One would state that the best images are acquired using a large diameter transducer with high frequency. However, as we have learned, high frequency transducers have significant attenuation issues. In addition, larger diameter transducers are impractical to use because the imaging windows are small. The way around these problems is electronic focusing with either an acoustic lens or by arranging the PZT crystals in a concave shape. In clinical imaging, the ultrasound beam is electronically focused as well as it is steered. This became possible after phased array technology was invented. By applying electrical current in a differential manner and adjusting the timing of individual PZT excitation, the beam can travel in an arch producing a two-dimensional image. If one applies electricity in a differential manner from outside inward to the center of the transducer, differential focusing can be produced resulting in a dynamic transmit focusing process. | ||